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A patient is taking diuretic drugs that cause sodium loss from the kidney. Which fluid or electrolyte imbalance is most likely to occur in this patient?
- A. Hyperkalemia
- B. Hyponatremia
- C. Hypocalcemia
- D. Hypotonic fluid loss
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: Diuretics promote sodium excretion, leading to hyponatremia as more water follows sodium out of the body.
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Which of the following restriction endonucleases produce fragments with blunt ends?
- A. Sacl
- B. EcoRI
- C. Smal
- D. HindIII
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The correct answer is C: Smal. Smal is a restriction endonuclease that cuts DNA at specific sequences, producing fragments with blunt ends. Smal recognizes the sequence CCCGGG and cuts between the two C's on both strands, resulting in blunt-ended fragments.
Explanation for incorrect choices:
A: Sacl - Sacl produces sticky ends, not blunt ends.
B: EcoRI - EcoRI produces sticky ends with overhangs.
D: HindIII - HindIII also produces sticky ends with overhangs.
In summary, Smal is the only enzyme among the choices that generates DNA fragments with blunt ends.
Choose the best definition for effector T cells. They are cells that
- A. Have never seen their specific antigen
- B. Have just seen their specific antigen and start to proliferate
- C. Have been energized
- D. Have been activated, expanded and are able to kill or help other cells
Correct Answer: D
Rationale: Effector T cells are fully activated, expanded, and capable of carrying out their functions, such as killing infected cells or assisting in immune responses. The correct choice (D) accurately describes the characteristics of effector T cells. They are not naïve cells (A), as they have encountered their specific antigen. They are not just starting to proliferate (B), as they have already undergone extensive proliferation. They have not only been energized (C), but have also completed the necessary steps for full activation and functionality.
Which patient is at the greatest risk for developing pressure ulcers?
- A. A 42-year-old obese woman with type 2 diabetes
- B. A 78-year-old man who is confused and malnourished
- C. A 30-year-old man who is comatose following a head injury
- D. A 65-year-old woman who has urge and stress incontinence
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: Comatose patients are at significant risk for pressure ulcers due to prolonged immobility, impaired sensation, and compromised circulation.
How does an antigen stimulate an immune response?
- A. It is captured, processed, and presented to a lymphocyte by a macrophage.
- B. It circulates in the blood, where it comes in contact with circulating lymphocytes.
- C. It is a foreign protein that has antigenic determinants different from those of the body.
- D. It combines with larger molecules that are capable of stimulating production of antibodies.
Correct Answer: A
Rationale: Antigens are captured, processed, and presented to lymphocytes by antigen-presenting cells like macrophages, initiating an immune response.
When a B cell undergoes class switching it allows the cell to:
- A. Differentiate into a memory cell
- B. Make two or more antibody classes at the same time
- C. Stop making one class of antibody and begin to make another
- D. Receive costimulatory signals from any T helper cell subset
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: Rationale:
1. Class switching in B cells involves changing the class of antibody produced.
2. This allows the B cell to stop making one class of antibody and start making another.
3. This process enhances the immune response by generating antibodies with different functions.
4. Differentiating into a memory cell (choice A) is a separate process from class switching.
5. Making two or more antibody classes simultaneously (choice B) is not a characteristic of class switching.
6. Costimulatory signals from T helper cells (choice D) are important for B cell activation but not directly related to class switching.