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You are investigating the role of physical activity in heart disease, and your data suggest a protective effect. While presenting your findings, a colleague asks whether you have thought about confounders, such as factor X. Under which of the following conditions could this factor have confounded your interpretation of the data?
- A. It is a risk factor for some other disease, but not heart disease.
- B. It is a risk factor associated with the physical activity measure and heart disease.
- C. It is part of the causal pathway by which physical activity affects heart disease.
- D. It has caused a lack of follow-up of test subjects.
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: A confounder must be associated with both the exposure (physical activity) and the outcome (heart disease), and it should not lie on the causal pathway between them.
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Are you able to define the following?
- A. A survey assessing the health status of the population across multiple demographics.
- B. A registry documenting all cancer cases.
- C. A monthly report on infectious diseases.
- D. A compilation of hospital discharge data.
Correct Answer: A
Rationale: The National Health Survey evaluates various aspects of health and illness across different segments of the population.
Total fertility rate (TFR) refers to
- A. Number of births per one thousand women
- B. Number of women between 15-49 years
- C. Number of children per woman (approximate completed family size)
- D. None of the above
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: TFR measures the average number of children a woman would have during her reproductive years, approximating the completed family size.
Prevalence is a
- A. Ratio
- B. Rate
- C. Proportion
- D. Mode of diseases
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: Prevalence is a proportion because it measures the number of existing cases in a population at a given time out of the total population.
Define the following terms: environmental epidemiology
- A. The study of disease patterns in populations.
- B. The study of chemical reactions in the environment.
- C. The study of genetic inheritance patterns.
- D. The study of physical activity and health.
Correct Answer: A
Rationale: Environmental epidemiology focuses on identifying and measuring exposures to environmental hazards and their health effects.
List examples of metallic compounds that pose environmental hazards. What are some examples of health effects thought to be associated with arsenic, mercury, and lead?
- A. Arsenic: cancer; Mercury: neurotoxicity; Lead: developmental delays.
- B. Arsenic: improved digestion; Mercury: enhanced memory; Lead: stronger bones.
- C. Arsenic: weight loss; Mercury: better vision; Lead: faster reflexes.
- D. Arsenic: increased stamina; Mercury: clearer speech; Lead: heightened focus.
Correct Answer: A
Rationale: Arsenic is carcinogenic, mercury causes neurotoxicity, and lead impairs cognitive development, particularly in children.