Nokea
An 82-year-old male patient with pneumonia who is in the intensive care unit (ICU) is beginning to have decreased cognitive function. What should the nurse first suspect as a potential cause of this change?
- A. Fatigue
- B. Infection
- C. ICU psychosis
- D. Medication allergy
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: ICU psychosis is common in elderly patients due to sensory overload, sleep deprivation, and unfamiliar environments. While infection could also cause confusion, ICU psychosis is more likely given the context.
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Which of the following complement components is an opsonin?
- A. C3a
- B. C3b
- C. C4a
- D. C5a
Correct Answer: B
Rationale: The correct answer is B: C3b. C3b is an opsonin because it coats pathogens, making them more recognizable by phagocytic cells for ingestion and destruction. C3a, C4a, and C5a are anaphylatoxins that mediate inflammatory responses by activating immune cells, not opsonins.
The vascular instability observed in severe sepsis is caused by
- A. Systemic release of cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β
- B. Complement activation
- C. Release of high levels of lipid mediators
- D. All of the above
Correct Answer: D
Rationale: The correct answer is D because all the choices contribute to the vascular instability observed in severe sepsis. A: Systemic release of cytokines like TNF-α and IL-1β leads to vasodilation and increased capillary permeability. B: Complement activation causes inflammation and vasodilation. C: Release of high levels of lipid mediators like prostaglandins and leukotrienes further exacerbates vasodilation and vascular permeability. Therefore, all these mechanisms combined lead to the vascular instability seen in severe sepsis.
Why is smallpox considered a factor that greatly helped European explorers to defeat the Native populations of the Americas (e.g. Mexico)?
- A. When the Europeans arrived there was an ongoing smallpox epidemic in the Americas that weakened the ability of the Natives to fight back
- B. The Native populations used a form of vaccination against smallpox that was often lethal and therefore they lost more lives.
- C. Smallpox was introduced in Mexico by the European explorers therefore the Native population had no immunity to it and the disease spread rapidly
- D. Both A and B are correct
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The correct answer is C because smallpox was indeed introduced to the Americas by European explorers, leading to devastating effects on the Native populations who had no immunity. This weakened the Natives' ability to fight back against the Europeans. Option A is incorrect as there was no ongoing smallpox epidemic in the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans. Option B is also incorrect as there is no evidence that the Native populations used a lethal form of vaccination against smallpox. Option D is incorrect as only option C accurately explains the impact of smallpox on the Native populations in relation to European conquest.
All of the following are true of antigen EXCEPT which one of the following?
- A. They contain paratopes
- B. They will react with antibodies.
- C. They contain antigenic determinants.
- D. They can elicit an immune response.
Correct Answer: A
Rationale: The correct answer is A. Paratopes are actually parts of antibodies that bind to antigens, not the antigens themselves. A is incorrect because antigens do not contain paratopes; rather, they contain epitopes or antigenic determinants that are recognized by antibodies. B, C, and D are true statements about antigens. B is true because antigens react with antibodies. C is true because antigens contain antigenic determinants that antibodies recognize. D is true because antigens can elicit an immune response by stimulating the production of antibodies. Therefore, the correct answer is A because antigens do not contain paratopes.
Kinds of innate immunity barriers are
- A. External barriers such as Skin, Secretions, Mucous membranes
- B. Internal defenses such as Inflammatory response
- C. A & B
- D. Non
Correct Answer: C
Rationale: The correct answer is C because both external barriers (Skin, Secretions, Mucous membranes) and internal defenses (Inflammatory response) are types of innate immunity. External barriers physically block pathogens from entering the body, while internal defenses involve cellular and molecular responses to eliminate pathogens. Choice A alone does not cover internal defenses, and choice B alone does not cover external barriers, making them individually incomplete. Choice D is incorrect as innate immunity does involve specific barriers and responses. Therefore, choice C is the best answer as it encompasses both types of innate immunity barriers.